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标 题: Quantum Mechanics
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Quantum Mechanics
Sheldon Goldstein and Joel L. Lebowitz
Departments of Mathematics and Physics,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903
Sheldon Goldstein is a Professor of Mathematics at Rutgers University
in New Brunswick, New Jersey. He worked for many years on probability
theory and the rigorous foundations of statistical mechanics.
In particular, he has investigated the ergodic properties of large
systems, the existence of steady-state nonequilibrium ensembles,
derivations of Brownian motion for interacting particles and of
diffusion and subdiffusion limits for random motions in random
environments. In recent years he has been concerned with the
foundations of quantum mechanics.
Joel L. Lebowitz is the George William Hill Professor of Mathematics
and Physics and Director of the Center for Mathematical Sciences
Research at Rutgers University. He came to the United States in 1946
and was a student of Melba Phillips, Peter Bergmann, and Lars Onsager.
His work has been mainly in statistical mechanics with an outsider's
interest in foundational questions. His awards include the A. Cressy
Morrison Award in Natural Sciences from the New York Academy of
Sciences and the Boltzmann Medal from the IUPAP Committee on
Thermodynamics and Statistical Physics.
Quantum mechanics is undoubtedly the most successful theory yet devised by
the human mind. Not one of the multitude of its calculated predictions has
ever been found wanting, even in the last measured decimal place — nor is
there any reason to believe that this will change in the foreseeable
future. All the same, it is a bizarre theory. Let us quote Feynman,1 one
of the deepest scientist-thinkers of our century and one not known for his
intellectual (or any other) modesty, on the subject: "There was a time
when the newspapers said that only twelve men understood the theory of
relativity. I do not believe there ever was such a time. There might
have been a time when only one man did, because he was the only guy who
caught on, before he wrote his paper. But after people read the paper
a lot of people understood the theory of relativity in some way or other,
certainly more than twelve. On the other hand, I think I can safely say
that nobody understands quantum mechanics. ... I am going to tell you what
nature behaves like. If you will simply admit that maybe she does behave
like this, you will find her a delightful, entrancing thing. Do not keep
saying to yourself, if you can possibly avoid it, 'but how can it be like
that?' because you will get 'down the drain,' into a blind alley from which
nobody has yet escaped. Nobody knows how it can be like that."
Feynman's point of view, expressed as usual with great vigor and clarity,
characterizes the attitude of most physicists towards the foundations of
quantum mechanics, a subject concerned with the meaning and interpretation
of quantum theory — at least it did so before the work of Bell2 and the
experiments of Aspect et al.3 (which came after the cited Feynman lecture).
Even today, the subject is treated like a poor stepchild of the physics
family. It is pretty much ignored in most standard graduate texts, and
what is conveyed there is often so mired in misconception and confusion
that it usually does more harm than good. To many physicists, it appears
that not only does foundational research not lead to genuine scientific
progress, but that it is in fact dangerous, with the potential for getting
people "down the drain." Even to the more tolerant ones, it often seems that
what is achieved merely supports what every good physicist should have
known already.
While these perceptions are partly true, they are also in part misapprehen-
sions arising from the, to our taste, much too practical approach taken by
many physicists. Basic questions concerning the physical meaning of
quantities such as the wave function which we manipulate in our computations
are too important to be left to philosophers. One such question, whether the
description of a physical system provided by its wave function is complete,
is central to the articles reprinted in this chapter.
Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (EPR)4 argue that quantum mechanics provides
at best an incomplete description of physical reality. Indeed, they claim
that there are situations in which the very predictions of quantum theory
demand that there be elements of physical reality — i.e., predetermined,
preexisting values for physical quantities, which are revealed rather than
created if and when we measure those quantities —
that are not incorporated
within the orthodox quantum framework. In the original version of the
argument, these elements of reality are the (simultaneous) values of the
position and momentum of a particle belonging to an EPR pair — a pair of
particles whose quantum state, given by the EPR wave function, involves
such strong quantum pair correlations that the position or momentum of one
of the particles can be inferred from the measurement of that of the other.
By the uncertainty principle, however, the position and momentum of one
particle cannot simultaneously be part of the quantum description. In the
later version of the EPR analysis due to Bohm,5 which provides the framework
for most of the experimental tests of quantum theory that were stimulated
by the celebrated Bell's inequality paper,2 these elements of reality are
the values of the (simultaneous) components, in all possible directions,
of the spins of the particles belonging to a Bohm — EPR pair — a pair
of spin 1/2 particles prepared in the singlet S = 0 state — or, in another
version, the simultaneous components of photon polarization in a
suitable photon pair. We shall call these the Bohm-EPR elements of
reality. (They again cannot simultaneously be part of the quantum
description, because spin components in different
directions do not commute.)
The EPR analysis begins with a criterion of reality: "If, without
in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty
... the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an
element of physical reality corresponding to this physical
quantity." EPR continue, "It seems to us that this criterion,
while far from exhausting all possible ways of recognizing a
physical reality, at least provides us with one such way ... .
Regarded not as a necessary, but merely as a sufficient, condition
of reality, this criterion is in agreement with classical as well
as quantum-mechanical ideas of reality." They then deduce the
existence of the relevant elements of reality for an EPR pair
from the predictions of quantum theory for the pair. In so doing,
however, they crucially require a locality assumption that "the
process of measurement carried out on the first system ... does
not disturb the second system in any way." EPR conclude as follows:
"While we have thus shown that the wave function does not provide a
complete description of the physical reality, we left open
the question of whether or not such a description exists.
We believe, however, that such a theory is possible."
We wish to emphasize that in arguing here for the incompleteness of
the quantum description, EPR were not questioning the validity of
the experimental predictions of quantum theory. On the contrary,
they were claiming that these predictions were not only
compatible with a more complete description — in particular,
one involving their elements of reality — but also demanded
one. Elsewhere, Einstein6 asserts that in "a complete physical description,
the statistical quantum theory would...take an approximately analogous
position to the statistical mechanics within the framework of
classical mechanics."
Niels Bohr,7 in what is perhaps the definitive statement of his
principle of complementarity, disagreed with the EPR conclusion,
though he did not take the EPR analysis lightly.
The central objection in Bohr's reply is that the
EPR reality criterion "contains an ambiguity as regards
the meaning of the expression 'without in any way disturbing
a system.' Of course, there is...no question of a mechanical disturbance...
. But...there is essentially the
question of an influence on the very conditions which...constitute an
inherent element of the description of any phenomenon to which the
term 'physical reality' can be properly attached... ." While, with
Bell,8 we "have very little idea what this means," it does perhaps
suggest "the feature of wholeness typical of proper quantum phenomena"
elsewhere stressed by Bohr.9
Bohm,10,11 on the other hand, not only agreed with EPR that the quantum
description is incomplete, but showed explicitly how to extend the
incomplete quantum description — by the introduction of
"hidden variables" — into a complete one, in such a way
that the indeterminism of quantum theory is
completely eliminated. We shall call Bohm's deterministic completion of
nonrelativistic quantum theory Bohmian mechanics. In Bohmian mechanics the
hidden variables are simply the positions of the particles, which move,
under an evolution governed by the wave function, in what is in effect the
simplest possible manner.12 We should emphasize that Bohmian mechanics is
indeed an extension of quantum theory, in the sense that in this theory,
as in quantum theory, the wave function evolves autonomously according to
Schr?dinger's equation. Moreover, it can be shown12 that the statistical
description in quantum theory, given by
indeed takes, as Einstein wanted, "an approximately analogous position to
the statistical mechanics within the framework of classical mechanics."
Bohmian mechanics was ignored by most physicists, but it was taken very
seriously by Bell, who declared13 that "in 1952 I saw the impossible done."
Bell quite naturally asked how Bohm had managed to do what von Neumann14
had proclaimed to be — and almost all authorities agreed was —
impossible. (It is perhaps worth noting that despite the almost
universal acceptance among physicists of the soundness of von
Neumann's proof of the impossibility of hidden variables,
undoubtedly based in part on von
Neumann's well-deserved reputation as one of the greatest mathematicians
of the 20th century, Bell15 felt that the assumptions made by von Neumann
about the requirements for a hidden-variable theory are so unreasonable
that "the proof of von Neumann is not merely false but foolish!" See also
Ref. 16.) His ensuing hidden-variables analysis led to Bell's inequality,
which must be satisfied by certain correlations between Bohm-EPR elements
of reality — and, of course, by correlations between their measured values.
He observed also that quantum theory predicts a sharp violation of the
inequality when the quantities in question are measured.
Thus the specific elements of reality to which the EPR analysis
would lead (if applied to the Bohm-EPR version) must
satisfy correlations that are incompatible with those
given by quantum theory. That is, these elements
of reality, whatever else they may be, are demonstrably
incompatible with the predictions of quantum theory and
hence are certainly not part of any completion of it.
It follows that there is definitely something wrong with
the EPR analysis, since quantum mechanics cannot be (even partially)
completed in the manner demanded by this analysis. In other words,
had EPR been aware of the work of Bell, they might well have predicted
that quantum theory is wrong and proposed an experimental test of Bell's
inequality to settle the issue once and for all.
Of course, EPR were not aware of Bell's analysis, but Clauser, Horne,
Shimony, and Holt were.17 Their proposal for an experimental test has
led to an enormous proliferation of experiments, the most conclusive
of which was perhaps that of Aspect et al.3 included here. The result:
Quantum mechanics is right.
We note, however, that the predictions of (nonrelativistic) quantum
mechanics — in particular, those for the experimental tests of Bell's
inequality — are in complete agreement with the predictions of Bohmian
mechanics. Thus the Bohm-EPR elements of reality are not part of
Bohmian mechanics! This is because in Bohmian mechanics the result
of what we speak of as measuring a spin component depends as
much upon the detailed experimental arrangement for performing
the measurement as it does upon
anything existing prior to and independent of the measurement. This
dependence is an example of what the experts in the hidden-variables
field call contextuality18 (see also Ref. 15), i.e., of the critical
importance of not overlooking "the interaction with the measuring
instruments which serve to define the conditions under which the
phenomena appear."19
In fact, just before he arrived at his inequality, Bell noticed that
"in this (Bohm's) theory an explicit causal mechanism exists whereby
the disposition of one piece of apparatus affects the results obtained
with a distant piece. ... Bohm of course was well aware of these
features of his scheme, and has given them much attention. However,
it must be stressed that, to the present writer's knowledge, there is
no proof that any hidden variable account of quantum mechanics must
have this extraordinary character. It would therefore be interesting,
perhaps, to pursue some further 'impossibility proofs,' replacing
the arbitrary axioms objected to above by some condition of locality,
or of separability of distant systems."18 Almost immediately, Bell
found his inequality. Thus did Bohmian mechanics lead to Bell's
refutation of the EPR claim to have "shown that the wave function
does not provide a complete description." At the same time it showed,
by explicit example, the correctness of the EPR belief "that such a
theory is possible"!
While Bell's analysis, together with the results of experiments such
as Aspect's, implies that the EPR analysis was faulty, where in fact
did EPR go wrong? Since their only genuine assumption was that of
locality quoted above, and since their subsequent reasoning is valid,
it is this assumption that must fail, both for quantum theory and for
nature herself. Aspect's experiment thus establishes perhaps the most
striking implication of quantum theory: Nature is nonlocal! This
conclusion is of course implicit in the very structure of quantum theory
itself, based as it is on a field — the wave function — which for a
many-body system lives not on physical space but on a 3n-dimensional
configuration space, a structure that allows for the entanglement of
states of distant systems — as most dramatically realized in the EPR
state itself. But while quantum mechanics may someday be replaced by a
theory of an entirely different character, we may nonetheless conclude
— though there are some who disagree15 — from Bell and Aspect that the
nonlocality it implies is here to stay.
One of the great foundational mysteries that remains very much unsolved
is how nonlocality can be rendered compatible with special relativity,
i.e., with Lorentz invariance. Here Bohmian mechanics is of no direct
help, since it manifestly and fundamentally is not Lorentz invariant.
But there is no reason to believe that a more appropriate completion
of quantum theory, one that is Lorentz invariant and perhaps even
generally covariant, cannot be found. However, one should not expect
finding it to be easy.
One lesson of this story is perhaps that we would be wise to place greater
trust in the mathematical structure of quantum theory, and less in the
philosophy with which quantum theory is so often encumbered. For the EPR
problem, the mathematical structure correctly suggests nonlocality, while
the philosophy makes the questionable demand that the wave function provide
a complete description, at least on the microscopic level. The paper by
Aharonov and Bohm20 included here supports this lesson. Aharonov and Bohm
dramatically demonstrate that the electromagnetic vector potential has a
reality in quantum theory far beyond what it has classically: A nonvanishing
vector potential may generate a shift in an interference pattern for an
electron confined to a region in which the magnetic field itself vanishes.
The Aharonov-Bohm effect, while rather clear from the role played by the
vector potential in Schr?dinger's equation, is rather surprising from the
perspective of the usual quantum philosophy, which, in attempting to explain
quantum deviations from classical behavior, appeals to limitations on what
can be measured or known arising from disturbances occurring during the act
of measurement that are due to the finiteness of the quantum of action.
It is appropriate to mention at this time — even though it is not the focus
of any of the five papers included in this chapter — one of the strongest
arguments for the conclusion that the quantum mechanical description is
incomplete: the notorious measurement problem — or, what amounts to the
same thing, the paradox of Schr?dinger's cat. The problem is that the after
-measurement wave function for system and apparatus arising from Schr?dinger
's
equation for the composite system typically involves a superposition over
terms corresponding to what we would like to regard as the various possible
results of the measurement — e.g., different pointer orientations. Since it
seems rather important that the actual result of the measurement be a part o
f
the description of the after-measurement situation, it is difficult to see
how this wave function could be the complete description of this situation.
By contrast, with a theory or interpretation in which the description of th
e
after-measurement situation includes, in addition to the wave function, at
least the values of the variables that register the result, the measurement
problem vanishes. (The remaining problem of then justifying the use of the
"collapsed" wave function — corresponding to the actual result — in place
of the original one is often confused with the measurement problem. The
justification for this replacement is nowadays frequently expressed in
terms of decoherence. One of the best descriptions of the mechanisms of
decoherence, though not the word itself, can be found in the Bohm article
reprinted here; see also Ref. 5. We wish to emphasize, however, as did Bell
in his article "Against Measurement,"21 that decoherence per se in no way
comes to grips with the measurement problem itself.)
The orthodox response to the measurement problem is that we must
distinguish between closed systems and open systems — those upon
which an external "observer" intervenes. While we do not want to
delve into the merits of this response here — nor is this the place
to discuss the sundry proposals for alternate interpretations of
quantum theory, such as those of Schulman,22 Pearle,23,24 and of
Ghirardi, Rimini, and Weber25,26 — we do wish to note one
particular difficulty, much emphasized of late. This concerns the
now-popular subject of quantum cosmology, concerned with the physics
of the universe as a whole, certainly a closed system! A formulation
of quantum mechanics that makes sense for closed systems seems to be
demanded. Bohmian mechanics is one such formulation. Others also now
generating a good deal of excitement are due to Griffiths,27 Omnès,28
and Gell-Mann and Hartle.29 All of these exemplify the EPR conclusion
"that the wave function does not provide a complete description of the
physical reality."
References
1. R. Feynman, The Character of Physical Law (MIT, Cambridge, 1992), p. 129
.
2. J. S. Bell, On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen Paradox, Physics 1, 195-200 (
1964) (reprinted in Ref. 8).
3. A. Aspect, J. Dalibard, and G. Roger, Experimental Test of Bell's Inequa
lities Using Time-Varying Analyzers, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 1804-1807 (1982).
4. A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen, Can Quantum-Mechanical Descripti
on of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?, Phys. Rev. 47, 777-780 (1935
).
5. D. Bohm, Quantum Theory (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1951).
6. Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist, edited by P. A. Schilpp (Library
of Living Philosophers, Evanston, IL, 1949), p. 672.
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8. J. S. Bell, Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics (Cambridge Un
iversity, Cambridge, 1987), p. 155.
9. N. Bohr, Quantum Physics and Philosophy, Essays on Atomic Physics and Hu
man Knowledge (Wiley, New York, 1963).
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Hidden" Variables, I, Phys. Rev. 85, 166-179 (1952).
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Hidden" Variables, II, Phys. Rev. 85, 180-193 (1952).
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gin of Absolute Uncertainty, J. Stat. Phys. 67, 843-907 (1992); Quantum Mech
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.
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2).
14. J. von Neumann, Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik (Springer,
Berlin, 1932); English translation by R.T. Beyer, Mathematical Foundations
of Quantum Mechanics (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 1955), 324-325.
15. N. D. Mermin, Hidden Variables and the Two Theorems of John Bell, Rev.
Mod. Phys. 65, 803-815 (1993).
16. T. J. Pinch, What Does a Proof Do if it Does Not Prove?, A Study of the
Social Conditions and Metaphysical Divisions Leading to David Bohm and John
von Neumann Failing to Communicate in Quantum Physics, The Social Productio
n of Scientific Knowledge, edited by E. Mendelsohn, P. Weingart, and R. Whit
ly (Reidel, Boston, 1977), pp. 171-215.
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Physics, in Ref. 6, 199-244.
20. Y. Aharonov and D. Bohm, Significance of Electromagnetic Potentials in
the Quantum Theory, Phys. Rev. 115, 485-491 (1959).
21. J. S. Bell, Against "Measurement", Phys. World 3, 33-40 (1990).
22. L. S. Schulman, Deterministic Quantum Evolution Through Modification of
the Hypotheses of Statistical Mechanics, J. Stat. Phys. 42, 689 (1986).
23. P. Pearle, Reduction of the State-Vector by a Nonlinear Schr?dinger Equ
ation, Phys. Rev. D 13, 857-868 (1976).
24. P. Pearle, Combining Stochastic Dynamical Statevector Reduction with Sp
ontaneous Localisation, Phys. Rev. A 39, 2277-2289 (1989).
25. G. C. Ghirardi, A. Rimini, and T. Weber, Unified Dynamics for Microscop
ic and Macroscopic Systems, Phys. Rev. D 34, 470-491 (1986).
26. J. S. Bell, Are There Quantum Jumps?, in Ref. 8.
27. R. B. Griffiths, Consistent Histories and the Interpretation of Quantum
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53, 893-932 (1988).
29. M. Gell-Mann and J. B. Hartle, Quantum Mechanics in the Light of Quantu
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W. Zurek (Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1990), p. 425-458; Alternative Decohering
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--
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