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发信人: wangcx (水耗子), 信区: Physics
标 题: Who performed the most beautiful experiment in ph
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (Thu Sep 12 21:16:22 2002) , 转信
http://physicsweb.org/article/world/15/9/1
A brief history of the double-slit experiment
Editorial: September 2002
Who performed the most beautiful experiment in physics?
What is the most beautiful experiment in physics? This is the question that
Robert Crease asked Physics World readers in May - and more than 200 replied
with suggestions as diverse as Schr?dinger's cat and the Trinity nuclear te
st in 1945. The top five included classic experiments by Galileo, Millikan,
Newton and Thomas Young. But uniquely among the top 10, the most beautiful e
xperiment in physics - Young's double-slit experiment applied to the interfe
rence of single electrons - does not have a name associated with it.
Most discussions of double-slit experiments with particles refer to Feynman'
s quote in his lectures: "We choose to examine a phenomenon which is impossi
ble, absolutely impossible, to explain in any classical way, and which has i
n it the heart of quantum mechanics. In reality, it contains the only myster
y." Feynman went on to add: "We should say right away that you should not tr
y to set up this experiment. This experiment has never been done in just thi
s way. The trouble is that the apparatus would have to be made on an impossi
bly small scale to show the effects we are interested in. We are doing a "th
ought experiment", which we have chosen because it is easy to think about. W
e know the results that would be obtained because there are many experiments
that have been done, in which the scale and the proportions have been chose
n to show the effects we shall describe".
It is not clear that Feynman was aware that the first double-slit experiment
with electrons had been carried out in 1961, the year he started his lectur
es (which were published in 1963). More surprisingly, perhaps, Feynman did n
ot stress that an interference pattern would build up even if there was just
one electron in the apparatus at a time. (This lack of emphasis was unusual
because in the same lecture Feynman describes the electron experiment - and
other double-slit experiments with water waves and bullets - in considerabl
e detail).
So who actually carried out the first double-slit experiment with single ele
ctrons? Not surprisingly many thought or gedanken experiments are named afte
r theorists - such as the Aharonov-Bohm effect, Bell's inequality, the Casim
ir force, the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, Schr?dinger's cat and so on -
and these names rightly remain even when the experiment has been performed
by others in the laboratory. However, it seems remarkable that no name whats
oever is attached to the double-slit experiment with electrons. Standard ref
erence books are silent on this question but a study of the literature revea
ls several unsung experimental heroes.
Back to Young
Young carried out his original double-slit experiment with light some time i
n the first decade of the 1800s, showing that the waves of light from the tw
o slits interfered to produce a characteristic fringe pattern on a screen. I
n 1909 Geoffrey Ingram (G I) Taylor conducted an experiment in which he show
ed that even the feeblest light source - equivalent to "a candle burning at
a distance slightly exceeding a mile" - could lead to interference fringes.
This led to Dirac's famous statement that "each photon then interferes only
with itself".
In 1927 Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer observed the diffraction of elect
ron beams from a nickel crystal - demonstrating the wave-like properties of
particles for the first time - and George (G P) Thompson did the same with t
hin films of celluloid and other materials shortly afterwards. Davisson and
Thomson shared the 1937 Nobel prize for "discovery of the interference pheno
mena arising when crystals are exposed to electronic beams", but neither per
formed a double-slit experiment with electrons.
In the early 1950s Ladislaus Laszlo Marton of the US National Bureau of Stan
dards (now NIST) in Washington, DC demonstrated electron interference but th
is was in a Mach-Zehnder rather than a double-slit geometry. These were the
early days of the electron microscope and physicists were keen to exploit th
e very short de Broglie wavelength of electrons to study objects that were t
oo small to be studied with visible light. Doing gedanken or thought experim
ents in the laboratory was further down their list of priorities.
A few years later Gottfried M?llenstedt and Heinrich Düker of the Universit
y of Tübingen in Germany used an electron biprism - essentially a very thin
conducting wire at right angles to the beam - to split an electron beam int
o two components and observe interference between them. (M?llenstedt made th
e wires by coating fibres from spiders' webs with gold - indeed, it is said
that he kept spiders in the laboratory for this purpose). The electron bipri
sm was to become widely used in the development of electron holography and a
lso in other experiments, including the first measurement of the Aharonov-Bo
hm effect by Bob Chambers at Bristol University in the UK in 1960.
But in 1961 Claus J?nsson of Tübingen, who had been one of M?llenstedt's st
udents, finally performed an actual double-slit experiment with electrons fo
r the first time (Zeitschrift für Physik 161 454). Indeed, he demonstrated
interference with up to five slits. The next milestone - an experiment in wh
ich there was just one electron in the apparatus at any one time - was reach
ed by Akira Tonomura and co-workers at Hitachi in 1989 when they observed th
e build up of the fringe pattern with a very weak electron source and an ele
ctron biprism (American Journal of Physics 57 117-120). Whereas J?nsson's ex
periment was analogous to Young's original experiment, Tonomura's was simila
r to G I Taylor's.
Since then particle interference has been demonstrated with neutrons, atoms
and molecules as large as carbon-60 and carbon-70. And earlier this year ano
ther famous experiment in optics - the Hanbury Brown and Twiss experiment -
was performed with electrons for the first time (again at Tübingen!). Howev
er, the results are profoundly different this time because electrons are fer
mions - and therefore obey the Pauli exclusion principle - whereas photons a
re bosons and do not.
Credit where it's due
So why are J?nsson, Tonomura and the other pioneers of the double-slit exper
iment not well known? One obvious reason is that J?nsson's results were firs
t published in German in a German journal. Another reason might be that ther
e was little incentive to perform the ultimate thought experiment in the lab
, and little recognition for doing so. When J?nsson's paper was translated i
nto English 13 years later and published in the American Journal of Physics
in 1974 (volume 42, pp4-11), the journal's editors, Anthony (A P) French and
Edwin Taylor, described it as a "great experiment", but added that there ar
e "few professional rewards" for performing what they describe as "real, ped
agogically clean fundamental experiments."
It is worth noting that the first double-slit experiment with single electro
ns by Tonomura and co-workers was also published in the American Journal of
Physics, which publishes articles on the educational and cultural aspects of
physics, rather than being a research journal. Indeed, the journal's inform
ation for contributors states: "We particularly encourage manuscripts on alr
eady published contemporary research that can be used directly or indirectly
in the classroom. We specifically do not publish articles announcing new th
eories or experimental results."
French and Taylor's editorial also confirms how little known J?nsson's exper
iment was at the time: "For decades two-slit electron interference has been
presented as a thought experiment whose predicted results are justified by t
heir remote and somewhat obscure relation to real experiments in which elect
rons are diffracted by crystals. Few such recent presentations acknowledge t
hat the two-slit electron interference experiment has now been done and that
the results agree with the expectation of quantum physics in all detail."
However, it should be noted that the history of physics is complicated and t
hat events are rarely as clear-cut as we might like. For instance, it is wid
ely claimed that Young performed his double-slit experiment in 1801 but he d
id not publish any account of it until his Lectures on Natural Philosophy in
1807. It also appears as if Davisson and a young collaborator called C H Ku
nsman observed electron diffraction in 1923 - four years before Davisson and
Germer - without realising it.
Final thoughts
Gedanken or thought experiments have played an important role in the history
of quantum physics. It is unlikely that the whole area of quantum informati
on would be as lively as it is today - both theoretically and experimentally
- if a small band of physicists had not persevered and actually demonstrate
d quantum phenomena with individual particles.
At one time the Casimir force, which has yet to be measured with an accuracy
of better than 15% in the geometry first proposed by Hendrik Casimir in 194
8, might also have been viewed as purely a pedagogical experiment - a gedank
en experiment with little relevance to real experimental physics. However, i
t is now clear that applications as varied as nanotechnology and experimenta
l tests of theories of "large" extra dimensions require a detailed knowledge
of the Casimir force.
The need for "real, pedagogically clean fundamental experiments" is clearly
as great as ever.
This is a longer version of the article "The double-slit experiment" that ap
peared in the print version of the September issue of Physics World, on page
15.
References
General
T Young 1802 On the theory of light and colours (The 1801 Bakerian Lecture)
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 92 12-48
T Young 1804 Experiments and calculations relative to physical optics (The 1
803 Bakerian Lecture) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Lon
don 94 1-16
T Young 1807 A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical A
rts (J Johnson, London)
G I Taylor 1909 Interference fringes with feeble light Proceedings of the Ca
mbridge Philosophical Society 15 114-115
P A M Dirac 1958 The Principles of Quantum Mechanics (Oxford University Pres
s) 4th edn p9
R P Feynman, R B Leighton and M Sands 1963 The Feynman Lecture on Physics (A
ddison-Wesley) vol 3 ch 37 (Quantum behaviour)
A Howie and J E Fowcs Williams (eds) 2002 Interference: 200 years after Thom
as Young's discoveries Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Lo
ndon 360 803-1069
R P Crease 2002 The most beautiful experiment Physics World September pp19-2
0. This article contains the results of Crease's survey for Physics World; t
he first article about the survey appeared on page 17 of the May 2002 issue.
Electron interference experiments
Visit www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1937/index.html for details of the Nobe
l prize awarded to Clinton Davisson and George Thomson
L Marton 1952 Electron interferometer Physical Review 85 1057-1058
L Marton, J Arol Simpson and J A Suddeth 1953 Electron beam interferometer P
hysical Review 90 490-491
L Marton, J Arol Simpson and J A Suddeth 1954 An electron interferometer Rev
iews of Scientific Instruments 25 1099-1104
G M?llenstedt and H Düker 1955 Naturwissenschaften 42 41
G M?llenstedt and H Düker 1956 Zeitschrift für Physik 145 377-397
G M?llenstedt and C J?nsson 1959 Zeitschrift für Physik 155 472-474
R G Chambers 1960 Shift of an electron interference pattern by enclosed magn
etic flux Physical Review Letters 5 3-5
C J?nsson 1961 Zeitschrift für Physik 161 454-474
C J?nsson 1974 Electron diffraction at multiple slits American Journal of Ph
ysics 42 4-11
A P French and E F Taylor 1974 The pedagogically clean, fundamental experime
nt American Journal of Physics 42 3
A Tonomura, J Endo, T Matsuda, T Kawasaki and H Ezawa 1989 Demonstration of
single-electron build-up of an interference pattern American Journal of Phys
ics 57 117-120
H Kiesel, A Renz and F Hasselbach 2002 Observation of Hanbury Brown-Twiss an
ticorrelations for free electrons Nature 418 392-394
Atoms and molecules
O Carnal and J Mlynek 1991 Young's double-slit experiment with atoms: a simp
le atom interferometer Physical Review Letters 66 2689-2692
D W Keith, C R Ekstrom, Q A Turchette and D E Pritchard 1991 An interferomet
er for atoms Physical Review Letters 66 2693-2696
M W Noel and C R Stroud Jr 1995 Young's double-slit interferometry within an
atom Physical Review Letters 75 1252-1255
M Arndt, O Nairz, J Vos-Andreae, C Keller, G van der Zouw and A Zeilinger 19
99 Wave-particle duality of C60 molecules Nature 401 680-682
B Brezger, L Hackermüller, S Uttenthaler, J Petschinka, M Arndt and A Zeili
nger 2002 Matter-wave interferometer for large molecules Physical Review Let
ters 88 100404
Review articles and books
G F Missiroli, G Pozzi and U Valdrè 1981 Electron interferometry and interf
erence electron microscopy Journal of Physics E 14 649-671. This review cove
rs early work on electron interferometry by groups in Bologna, Toulouse, Tü
bingen and elsewhere.
A Zeilinger, R G?hler, C G Shull, W Treimer and W Mampe 1988 Single- and dou
ble-slit diffraction of neutrons Reviews of Modern Physics 60 1067-1073
A Tonomura 1993 Electron Holography (Springer-Verlag, Berlin/New York)
H Rauch and S A Werner 2000 Neutron Interferometry: Lessons in Experimental
Quantum Mechanics (Oxford Science Publications)
Author
Peter Rodgers is Editor of Physics World
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