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NAME
perlop - Perl operators and precedence
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
SYNOPSIS
Perl operators have the following associativity and precedence, listed from
highest precedence to lowest. Note that all operators borrowed from C keep
the same precedence relationship with each other, even where C's precedence
is slightly screwy. (This makes learning Perl easier for C folks.)
* left terms and list operators (leftward)
* left ->
* nonassoc ++ --
* right **
* right ! ~ \ and unary + and -
* left =~ !~
* left * / % x
* left + - .
* left << >>
* nonassoc named unary operators
* nonassoc < > <= >= lt gt le ge
* nonassoc == != <=> eq ne cmp
* left &
* left | ^
* left &&
* left ||
* nonassoc ..
* right ?:
* right = += -= *= etc.
* left , =>
* nonassoc list operators (rightward)
* left not
* left and
* left or xor
In the following sections, these operators are covered in precedence order.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
DESCRIPTION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Terms and List Operators (Leftward)
Any TERM is of highest precedence of Perl. These includes variables, quote
and quotelike operators, any expression in parentheses, and any function
whose arguments are parenthesized. Actually, there aren't really functions
in this sense, just list operators and unary operators behaving as
functions because you put parentheses around the arguments. These are all
documented in the perlfunc manpage .
If any list operator ( print() , etc.) or any unary operator ( chdir() ,
etc.) is followed by a left parenthesis as the next token, the operator and
arguments within parentheses are taken to be of highest precedence, just
like a normal function call.
In the absence of parentheses, the precedence of list operators such as
print , sort , or chmod is either very high or very low depending on
whether you look at the left side of operator or the right side of it. For
example, in
@ary = (1, 3, sort 4, 2);
print @ary; # prints 1324
the commas on the right of the sort are evaluated before the sort, but the
commas on the left are evaluated after. In other words, list operators tend
to gobble up all the arguments that follow them, and then act like a simple
TERM with regard to the preceding expression. Note that you have to be
careful with parens:
# These evaluate exit before doing the print:
print($foo, exit); # Obviously not what you want.
print $foo, exit; # Nor is this.
# These do the print before evaluating exit:
(print $foo), exit; # This is what you want.
print($foo), exit; # Or this.
print ($foo), exit; # Or even this.
Also note that
print ($foo & 255) + 1, "\n";
probably doesn't do what you expect at first glance. See Named Unary
Operators for more discussion of this.
Also parsed as terms are the do {} and eval {} constructs, as well as
subroutine and method calls, and the anonymous constructors [] and {}.
See also Quote and Quotelike Operators toward the end of this section, as
well as I/O Operators .
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Arrow Operator
Just as in C and C++, ``->'' is an infix dereference operator. If the right
side is either a [...] or {...} subscript, then the left side must be
either a hard or symbolic reference to an array or hash (or a location
capable of holding a hard reference, if it's an lvalue (assignable)). See
the perlref manpage .
Otherwise, the right side is a method name or a simple scalar variable
containing the method name, and the left side must either be an object (a
blessed reference) or a class name (that is, a package name). See the
perlobj manpage .
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Autoincrement and Autodecrement
``++'' and ``--'' work as in C. That is, if placed before a variable, they
increment or decrement the variable before returning the value, and if
placed after, increment or decrement the variable after returning the
value.
The autoincrement operator has a little extra built-in magic to it. If you
increment a variable that is numeric, or that has ever been used in a
numeric context, you get a normal increment. If, however, the variable has
only been used in string contexts since it was set, and has a value that is
not null and matches the pattern /^[a-zA-Z]*[0-9]*$/, the increment is done
as a string, preserving each character within its range, with carry:
print ++($foo = '99'); # prints '100'
print ++($foo = 'a0'); # prints 'a1'
print ++($foo = 'Az'); # prints 'Ba'
print ++($foo = 'zz'); # prints 'aaa'
The autodecrement operator is not magical.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Exponentiation
Binary ``**'' is the exponentiation operator. Note that it binds even more
tightly than unary minus, so -2**4 is -(2**4), not (-2)**4. (This is
implemented using C's pow(3) function, which actually works on doubles
internally.)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Symbolic Unary Operators
Unary ``!'' performs logical negation, i.e. ``not''. See also not for a
lower precedence version of this.
Unary ``-'' performs arithmetic negation if the operand is numeric. If the
operand is an identifier, a string consisting of a minus sign concatenated
with the identifier is returned. Otherwise, if the string starts with a
plus or minus, a string starting with the opposite sign is returned. One
effect of these rules is that -bareword is equivalent to ``-bareword''.
Unary ``~'' performs bitwise negation, i.e. 1's complement.
Unary ``+'' has no effect whatsoever, even on strings. It is useful
syntactically for separating a function name from a parenthesized
expression that would otherwise be interpreted as the complete list of
function arguments. (See examples above under List Operators.)
Unary ``\'' creates a reference to whatever follows it. See the perlref
manpage . Do not confuse this behavior with the behavior of backslash
within a string, although both forms do convey the notion of protecting the
next thing from interpretation.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Binding Operators
Binary ``=~'' binds an expression to a pattern match. Certain operations
search or modify the string $_ by default. This operator makes that kind of
operation work on some other string. The right argument is a search
pattern, substitution, or translation. The left argument is what is
supposed to be searched, substituted, or translated instead of the default
$_ . The return value indicates the success of the operation. (If the right
argument is an expression rather than a search pattern, substitution, or
translation, it is interpreted as a search pattern at run time. This is
less efficient than an explicit search, since the pattern must be compiled
every time the expression is evaluated--unless you've used /o.)
Binary ``!~'' is just like ``=~'' except the return value is negated in the
logical sense.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Multiplicative Operators
Binary ``*'' multiplies two numbers.
Binary ``/'' divides two numbers.
Binary ``%'' computes the modulus of the two numbers.
Binary ``x'' is the repetition operator. In a scalar context, it returns a
string consisting of the left operand repeated the number of times
specified by the right operand. In a list context, if the left operand is a
list in parens, it repeats the list.
print '-' x 80; # print row of dashes
print "\t" x ($tab/8), ' ' x ($tab%8); # tab over
@ones = (1) x 80; # a list of 80 1's
@ones = (5) x @ones; # set all elements to 5
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Additive Operators
Binary ``+'' returns the sum of two numbers.
Binary ``-'' returns the difference of two numbers.
Binary ``.'' concatenates two strings.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Shift Operators
Binary ``<<'' returns the value of its left argument shifted left by the
number of bits specified by the right argument. Arguments should be
integers.
Binary ``>>'' returns the value of its left argument shifted right by the
number of bits specified by the right argument. Arguments should be
integers.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Named Unary Operators
The various named unary operators are treated as functions with one
argument, with optional parentheses. These include the filetest operators,
like -f, -M, etc. See the perlfunc manpage .
If any list operator ( print() , etc.) or any unary operator ( chdir() ,
etc.) is followed by a left parenthesis as the next token, the operator and
arguments within parentheses are taken to be of highest precedence, just
like a normal function call. Examples:
chdir $foo || die; # (chdir $foo) || die
chdir($foo) || die; # (chdir $foo) || die
chdir ($foo) || die; # (chdir $foo) || die
chdir +($foo) || die; # (chdir $foo) || die
but, because * is higher precedence than ||:
chdir $foo * 20; # chdir ($foo * 20)
chdir($foo) * 20; # (chdir $foo) * 20
chdir ($foo) * 20; # (chdir $foo) * 20
chdir +($foo) * 20; # chdir ($foo * 20)
rand 10 * 20; # rand (10 * 20)
rand(10) * 20; # (rand 10) * 20
rand (10) * 20; # (rand 10) * 20
rand +(10) * 20; # rand (10 * 20)
See also ``List Operators''.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Relational Operators
Binary ``<'' returns true if the left argument is numerically less than the
right argument.
Binary ``>'' returns true if the left argument is numerically greater than
the right argument.
Binary ``<='' returns true if the left argument is numerically less than or
equal to the right argument.
Binary ``>='' returns true if the left argument is numerically greater than
or equal to the right argument.
Binary ``lt'' returns true if the left argument is stringwise less than the
right argument.
Binary ``gt'' returns true if the left argument is stringwise greater than
the right argument.
Binary ``le'' returns true if the left argument is stringwise less than or
equal to the right argument.
Binary ``ge'' returns true if the left argument is stringwise greater than
or equal to the right argument.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Equality Operators
Binary ``=='' returns true if the left argument is numerically equal to the
right argument.
Binary ``!='' returns true if the left argument is numerically not equal to
the right argument.
Binary ``<=>'' returns -1, 0, or 1 depending on whether the left argument
is numerically less than, equal to, or greater than the right argument.
Binary ``eq'' returns true if the left argument is stringwise equal to the
right argument.
Binary ``ne'' returns true if the left argument is stringwise not equal to
the right argument.
Binary ``cmp'' returns -1, 0, or 1 depending on whether the left argument
is stringwise less than, equal to, or greater than the right argument.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bitwise And
Binary ``&'' returns its operators ANDed together bit by bit.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bitwise Or and Exclusive Or
Binary ``|'' returns its operators ORed together bit by bit.
Binary ``^'' returns its operators XORed together bit by bit.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
C-style Logical And
Binary ``&&'' performs a short-circuit logical AND operation. That is, if
the left operand is false, the right operand is not even evaluated. Scalar
or list context propagates down to the right operand if it is evaluated.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
C-style Logical Or
Binary ``||'' performs a short-circuit logical OR operation. That is, if
the left operand is true, the right operand is not even evaluated. Scalar
or list context propagates down to the right operand if it is evaluated.
The || and && operators differ from C's in that, rather than returning 0 or
1, they return the last value evaluated. Thus, a reasonably portable way to
find out the home directory (assuming it's not ``0'') might be:
$home = $ENV{'HOME'} || $ENV{'LOGDIR'} ||
(getpwuid($<))[7] || die "You're homeless!\n";
As more readable alternatives to && and ||, Perl provides ``and'' and
``or'' operators (see below). The short-circuit behavior is identical. The
precedence of ``and'' and ``or'' is much lower, however, so that you can
safely use them after a list operator without the need for parentheses:
unlink "alpha", "beta", "gamma"
or gripe(), next LINE;
With the C-style operators that would have been written like this:
unlink("alpha", "beta", "gamma")
|| (gripe(), next LINE);
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Range Operator
Binary ``..'' is the range operator, which is really two different
operators depending on the context. In a list context, it returns an array
of values counting (by ones) from the left value to the right value. This
is useful for writing for (1..10) loops and for doing slice operations on
arrays. Be aware that under the current implementation, a temporary array
is created, so you'll burn a lot of memory if you write something like
this:
for (1 .. 1_000_000) {
# code
}
In a scalar context, ``..'' returns a boolean value. The operator is
bistable, like a flip-flop, and emulates the line-range (comma) operator of
sed, awk, and various editors. Each ``..'' operator maintains its own
boolean state. It is false as long as its left operand is false. Once the
left operand is true, the range operator stays true until the right operand
is true, AFTER which the range operator becomes false again. (It doesn't
become false till the next time the range operator is evaluated. It can
test the right operand and become false on the same evaluation it became
true (as in awk), but it still returns true once. If you don't want it to
test the right operand till the next evaluation (as in sed), use three dots
(``...'') instead of two.) The right operand is not evaluated while the
operator is in the ``false'' state, and the left operand is not evaluated
while the operator is in the ``true'' state. The precedence is a little
lower than || and &&. The value returned is either the null string for
false, or a sequence number (beginning with 1) for true. The sequence
number is reset for each range encountered. The final sequence number in a
range has the string ``E0'' appended to it, which doesn't affect its
numeric value, but gives you something to search for if you want to exclude
the endpoint. You can exclude the beginning point by waiting for the
sequence number to be greater than 1. If either operand of scalar ``..'' is
a numeric literal, that operand is implicitly compared to the $. variable,
the current line number. Examples:
As a scalar operator:
if (101 .. 200) { print; } # print 2nd hundred lines
next line if (1 .. /^$/); # skip header lines
s/^/> / if (/^$/ .. eof()); # quote body
As a list operator:
for (101 .. 200) { print; } # print $_ 100 times
@foo = @foo[$[ .. $#foo]; # an expensive no-op
@foo = @foo[$#foo-4 .. $#foo]; # slice last 5 items
The range operator (in a list context) makes use of the magical
autoincrement algorithm if the operaands are strings. You can say
@alphabet = ('A' .. 'Z');
to get all the letters of the alphabet, or
$hexdigit = (0 .. 9, 'a' .. 'f')[$num & 15];
to get a hexadecimal digit, or
@z2 = ('01' .. '31'); print $z2[$mday];
to get dates with leading zeros. If the final value specified is not in the
sequence that the magical increment would produce, the sequence goes until
the next value would be longer than the final value specified.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Conditional Operator
Ternary ``?:'' is the conditional operator, just as in C. It works much
like an if-then-else. If the argument before the ? is true, the argument
before the : is returned, otherwise the argument after the : is returned.
For example:
printf "I have %d dog%s.\n", $n,
($n == 1) ? '' : "s";
Scalar or list context propagates downward into the 2nd or 3rd argument,
whichever is selected.
$a = $ok ? $b : $c; # get a scalar
@a = $ok ? @b : @c; # get an array
$a = $ok ? @b : @c; # oops, that's just a count!
The operator may be assigned to if both the 2nd and 3rd arguments are legal
lvalues (meaning that you can assign to them):
($a_or_b ? $a : $b) = $c;
This is not necessarily guaranteed to contribute to the readability of your
program.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Assignment Operators
``='' is the ordinary assignment operator.
Assignment operators work as in C. That is,
$a += 2;
is equivalent to
$a = $a + 2;
although without duplicating any side effects that dereferencing the lvalue
might trigger, such as from tie() . Other assignment operators work
similarly. The following are recognized:
**= += *= &= <<= &&=
-= /= |= >>= ||=
.= %= ^=
x=
Note that while these are grouped by family, they all have the precedence
of assignment.
Unlike in C, the assignment operator produces a valid lvalue. Modifying an
assignment is equivalent to doing the assignment and then modifying the
variable that was assigned to. This is useful for modifying a copy of
something, like this:
($tmp = $global) =~ tr [A-Z] [a-z];
Likewise,
($a += 2) *= 3;
is equivalent to
$a += 2;
$a *= 3;
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Comma Operator
Binary ``,'' is the comma operator. In a scalar context it evaluates its
left argument, throws that value away, then evaluates its right argument
and returns that value. This is just like C's comma operator.
In a list context, it's just the list argument separator, and inserts both
its arguments into the list.
The => digraph is mostly just a synonym for the comma operator. It's useful
for documenting arguments that come in pairs. As of release 5.001, it also
forces any word to the left of it to be interpreted as a string.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
List Operators (Rightward)
On the right side of a list operator, it has very low precedence, such that
it controls all comma-separated expressions found there. The only operators
with lower precedence are the logical operators ``and'', ``or'', and
``not'', which may be used to evaluate calls to list operators without the
need for extra parentheses:
open HANDLE, "filename"
or die "Can't open: $!\n";
See also discussion of list operators in List Operators (Leftward).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Logical Not
Unary ``not'' returns the logical negation of the expression to its right.
It's the equivalent of ``!'' except for the very low precedence.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Logical And
Binary ``and'' returns the logical conjunction of the two surrounding
expressions. It's equivalent to && except for the very low precedence. This
means that it short-circuits: i.e. the right expression is evaluated only
if the left expression is true.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Logical or and Exclusive Or
Binary ``or'' returns the logical disjunction of the two surrounding
expressions. It's equivalent to || except for the very low precedence. This
means that it short-circuits: i.e. the right expression is evaluated only
if the left expression is false.
Binary ``xor'' returns the exclusive-OR of the two surrounding expressions.
It cannot short circuit, of course.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
C Operators Missing From Perl
Here is what C has that Perl doesn't:
unary &
Address-of operator. (But see the ``\'' operator for taking a
reference.)
unary *
Dereference-address operator. (Perl's prefix dereferencing operators
are typed: $, @, %, and &.)
(TYPE)
Type casting operator.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Quote and Quotelike Operators
While we usually think of quotes as literal values, in Perl they function
as operators, providing various kinds of interpolating and pattern matching
capabilities. Perl provides customary quote characters for these behaviors,
but also provides a way for you to choose your quote character for any of
them. In the following table, a {} represents any pair of delimiters you
choose. Non-bracketing delimiters use the same character fore and aft, but
the 4 sorts of brackets (round, angle, square, curly) will all nest.
Customary Generic Meaning Interpolates
'' q{} Literal no
"" qq{} Literal yes
`` qx{} Command yes
qw{} Word list no
// m{} Pattern match yes
s{}{} Substitution yes
tr{}{} Translation no
For constructs that do interpolation, variables beginning with ``$'' or
``@'' are interpolated, as are the following sequences:
\t tab
\n newline
\r return
\f form feed
\v vertical tab, whatever that is
\b backspace
\a alarm (bell)
\e escape
\033 octal char
\x1b hex char
\c[ control char
\l lowercase next char
\u uppercase next char
\L lowercase till \E
\U uppercase till \E
\E end case modification
\Q quote regexp metacharacters till \E
Patterns are subject to an additional level of interpretation as a regular
expression. This is done as a second pass, after variables are
interpolated, so that regular expressions may be incorporated into the
pattern from the variables. If this is not what you want, use \Q to
interpolate a variable literally.
Apart from the above, there are no multiple levels of interpolation. In
particular, contrary to the expectations of shell programmers, backquotes
do NOT interpolate within double quotes, nor do single quotes impede
evaluation of variables when used within double quotes.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Regexp Quotelike Operators
Here are the quotelike operators that apply to pattern matching and related
activities.
?PATTERN?
This is just like the /pattern/ search, except that it matches only
once between calls to the reset() operator. This is a useful
optimization when you only want to see the first occurrence of
something in each file of a set of files, for instance. Only ??
patterns local to the current package are reset.
This usage is vaguely deprecated, and may be removed in some future
version of Perl.
m/PATTERN/gimosx
/PATTERN/gimosx
Searches a string for a pattern match, and in a scalar context returns
true (1) or false (''). If no string is specified via the =~ or !~
operator, the $_ string is searched. (The string specified with =~
need not be an lvalue--it may be the result of an expression
evaluation, but remember the =~ binds rather tightly.) See also the
perlre manpage .
Options are:
o g Match globally, i.e. find all occurrences.
o i Do case-insensitive pattern matching.
o m Treat string as multiple lines.
o o Only compile pattern once.
o s Treat string as single line.
o x Use extended regular expressions.
If ``/'' is the delimiter then the initial m is optional. With the m
you can use any pair of non-alphanumeric, non-whitespace characters as
delimiters. This is particularly useful for matching Unix path names
that contain ``/'', to avoid LTS (leaning toothpick syndrome).
PATTERN may contain variables, which will be interpolated (and the
pattern recompiled) every time the pattern search is evaluated. (Note
that $) and $| might not be interpolated because they look like
end-of-string tests.) If you want such a pattern to be compiled only
once, add a /o after the trailing delimiter. This avoids expensive
run-time recompilations, and is useful when the value you are
interpolating won't change over the life of the script. However,
mentioning /o constitutes a promise that you won't change the
variables in the pattern. If you change them, Perl won't even notice.
If the PATTERN evaluates to a null string, the last successfully
executed regular expression is used instead.
If used in a context that requires a list value, a pattern match
returns a list consisting of the subexpressions matched by the
parentheses in the pattern, i.e. ($1, $2, $3...). (Note that here $1
etc. are also set, and that this differs from Perl 4's behavior.) If
the match fails, a null array is returned. If the match succeeds, but
there were no parentheses, a list value of (1) is returned.
Examples:
open(TTY, '/dev/tty');
<TTY> =~ /^y/i && foo(); # do foo if desired
if (/Version: *([0-9.]*)/) { $version = $1; }
next if m#^/usr/spool/uucp#;
# poor man's grep
$arg = shift;
while (<>) {
print if /$arg/o; # compile only once
}
if (($F1, $F2, $Etc) = ($foo =~ /^(\S+)\s+(\S+)\s*(.*)/))
This last example splits $foo into the first two words and the
remainder of the line, and assigns those three fields to $F1, $F2 and
$Etc. The conditional is true if any variables were assigned, i.e. if
the pattern matched.
The /g modifier specifies global pattern matching--that is, matching
as many times as possible within the string. How it behaves depends on
the context. In a list context, it returns a list of all the
substrings matched by all the parentheses in the regular expression.
If there are no parentheses, it returns a list of all the matched
strings, as if there were parentheses around the whole pattern.
In a scalar context, m//g iterates through the string, returning TRUE
each time it matches, and FALSE when it eventually runs out of
matches. (In other words, it remembers where it left off last time and
restarts the search at that point. You can actually find the current
match position of a string using the pos() function--see the perlfunc
manpage .) If you modify the string in any way, the match position is
reset to the beginning. Examples:
# list context
($one,$five,$fifteen) = (`uptime` =~ /(\d+\.\d+)/g);
# scalar context
$/ = ""; $* = 1; # $* deprecated in Perl 5
while ($paragraph = <>) {
while ($paragraph =~ /[a-z]['")]*[.!?]+['")]*\s/g) {
$sentences++;
}
}
print "$sentences\n";
q/STRING/
'STRING'
A single-quoted, literal string. Backslashes are ignored, unless
followed by the delimiter or another backslash, in which case the
delimiter or backslash is interpolated.
$foo = q!I said, "You said, 'She said it.'"!;
$bar = q('This is it.');
qq/STRING/
``STRING''
A double-quoted, interpolated string.
$_ .= qq
(*** The previous line contains the naughty word "$1".\n)
if /(tcl|rexx|python)/; # :-)
qx/STRING/
`STRING`
A string which is interpolated and then executed as a system command.
The collected standard output of the command is returned. In scalar
context, it comes back as a single (potentially multi-line) string. In
list context, returns a list of lines (however you've defined lines
with $/ or $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR ).
$today = qx{ date };
See I/O Operators for more discussion.
qw/STRING/
Returns a list of the words extracted out of STRING, using embedded
whitespace as the word delimiters. It is exactly equivalent to
split(' ', q/STRING/);
Some frequently seen examples:
use POSIX qw( setlocale localeconv )
@EXPORT = qw( foo bar baz );
s/PATTERN/REPLACEMENT/egimosx
Searches a string for a pattern, and if found, replaces that pattern
with the replacement text and returns the number of substitutions
made. Otherwise it returns false (0).
If no string is specified via the =~ or !~ operator, the $_ variable
is searched and modified. (The string specified with =~ must be a
scalar variable, an array element, a hash element, or an assignment to
one of those, i.e. an lvalue.)
If the delimiter chosen is single quote, no variable interpolation is
done on either the PATTERN or the REPLACEMENT. Otherwise, if the
PATTERN contains a $ that looks like a variable rather than an
end-of-string test, the variable will be interpolated into the pattern
at run-time. If you only want the pattern compiled once the first time
the variable is interpolated, use the /o option. If the pattern
evaluates to a null string, the last successfully executed regular
expression is used instead. See the perlre manpage for further
explanation on these.
Options are:
o e Evaluate the right side as an expression.
o g Replace globally, i.e. all occurrences.
o i Do case-insensitive pattern matching.
o m Treat string as multiple lines.
o o Only compile pattern once.
o s Treat string as single line.
o x Use extended regular expressions.
Any non-alphanumeric, non-whitespace delimiter may replace the
slashes. If single quotes are used, no interpretation is done on the
replacement string (the /e modifier overrides this, however). If
backquotes are used, the replacement string is a command to execute
whose output will be used as the actual replacement text. If the
PATTERN is delimited by bracketing quotes, the REPLACEMENT has its own
pair of quotes, which may or may not be bracketing quotes, e.g.
s(foo)(bar) or s<foo>/bar/. A /e will cause the replacement portion to
be interpreter as a full-fledged Perl expression and eval() ed right
then and there. It is, however, syntax checked at compile-time.
Examples:
s/\bgreen\b/mauve/g; # don't change wintergreen
$path =~ s|/usr/bin|/usr/local/bin|;
s/Login: $foo/Login: $bar/; # run-time pattern
($foo = $bar) =~ s/this/that/;
$count = ($paragraph =~ s/Mister\b/Mr./g);
$_ = 'abc123xyz';
s/\d+/$&*2/e; # yields 'abc246xyz'
s/\d+/sprintf("%5d",$&)/e; # yields 'abc 246xyz'
s/\w/$& x 2/eg; # yields 'aabbcc 224466xxyyzz'
s/%(.)/$percent{$1}/g; # change percent escapes; no /e
s/%(.)/$percent{$1} || $&/ge; # expr now, so /e
s/^=(\w+)/&pod($1)/ge; # use function call
# /e's can even nest; this will expand
# simple embedded variables in $_
s/(\$\w+)/$1/eeg;
# Delete C comments.
$program =~ s {
/\* # Match the opening delimiter.
.*? # Match a minimal number of characters.
\*/ # Match the closing delimiter.
} []gsx;
s/^\s*(.*?)\s*$/$1/; # trim white space
s/([^ ]*) *([^ ]*)/$2 $1/; # reverse 1st two fields
Note the use of $ instead of \ in the last example. Unlike sed, we
only use the \<digit> form in the left hand side. Anywhere else it's
$<digit>.
Occasionally, you can't just use a /g to get all the changes to occur.
Here are two common cases:
# put commas in the right places in an integer
1 while s/(.*\d)(\d\d\d)/$1,$2/g; # perl4
1 while s/(\d)(\d\d\d)(?!\d)/$1,$2/g; # perl5
# expand tabs to 8-column spacing
1 while s/\t+/' ' x (length($&)*8 - length($`)%8)/e;
tr/SEARCHLIST/REPLACEMENTLIST/cds
y/SEARCHLIST/REPLACEMENTLIST/cds
Translates all occurrences of the characters found in the search list
with the corresponding character in the replacement list. It returns
the number of characters replaced or deleted. If no string is
specified via the =~ or !~ operator, the $_ string is translated. (The
string specified with =~ must be a scalar variable, an array element,
or an assignment to one of those, i.e. an lvalue.) For sed devotees, y
is provided as a synonym for tr. If the SEARCHLIST is delimited by
bracketing quotes, the REPLACEMENTLIST has its own pair of quotes,
which may or may not be bracketing quotes, e.g. tr[A-Z][a-z] or
tr(+-*/)/ABCD/.
Options:
o c Complement the SEARCHLIST.
o d Delete found but unreplaced characters.
o s Squash duplicate replaced characters.
If the /c modifier is specified, the SEARCHLIST character set is
complemented. If the /d modifier is specified, any characters
specified by SEARCHLIST not found in REPLACEMENTLIST are deleted.
(Note that this is slightly more flexible than the behavior of some tr
programs, which delete anything they find in the SEARCHLIST, period.)
If the /s modifier is specified, sequences of characters that were
translated to the same character are squashed down to a single
instance of the character.
If the /d modifier is used, the REPLACEMENTLIST is always interpreted
exactly as specified. Otherwise, if the REPLACEMENTLIST is shorter
than the SEARCHLIST, the final character is replicated till it is long
enough. If the REPLACEMENTLIST is null, the SEARCHLIST is replicated.
This latter is useful for counting characters in a class or for
squashing character sequences in a class.
Examples:
$ARGV[1] =~ tr/A-Z/a-z/; # canonicalize to lower case
$cnt = tr/*/*/; # count the stars in $_
$cnt = $sky =~ tr/*/*/; # count the stars in $sky
$cnt = tr/0-9//; # count the digits in $_
tr/a-zA-Z//s; # bookkeeper -> bokeper
($HOST = $host) =~ tr/a-z/A-Z/;
tr/a-zA-Z/ /cs; # change non-alphas to single space
tr [\200-\377]
[\000-\177]; # delete 8th bit
If multiple translations are given for a character, only the first one
is used:
tr/AAA/XYZ/
will translate any A to X.
Note that because the translation table is built at compile time,
neither the SEARCHLIST nor the REPLACEMENTLIST are subjected to double
quote interpolation. That means that if you want to use variables, you
must use an eval() :
eval "tr/$oldlist/$newlist/";
die $@ if $@;
eval "tr/$oldlist/$newlist/, 1" or die $@;
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
I/O Operators
There are several I/O operators you should know about. A string is enclosed
by backticks (grave accents) first undergoes variable substitution just
like a double quoted string. It is then interpreted as a command, and the
output of that command is the value of the pseudo-literal, like in a shell.
In a scalar context, a single string consisting of all the output is
returned. In a list context, a list of values is returned, one for each
line of output. (You can set $/ to use a different line terminator.) The
command is executed each time the pseudo-literal is evaluated. The status
value of the command is returned in $? (see the perlvar manpage for the
interpretation of $? ). Unlike in csh, no translation is done on the return
data--newlines remain newlines. Unlike in any of the shells, single quotes
do not hide variable names in the command from interpretation. To pass a $
through to the shell you need to hide it with a backslash. The generalized
form of backticks is qx// . (Because backticks always undergo shell
expansion as well, see the perlsec manpage for security concerns.)
Evaluating a filehandle in angle brackets yields the next line from that
file (newline included, so it's never false until end of file, at which
time an undefined value is returned). Ordinarily you must assign that value
to a variable, but there is one situation where an automatic assignment
happens. If and ONLY if the input symbol is the only thing inside the
conditional of a while loop, the value is automatically assigned to the
variable $_ . The assigned value is then tested to see if it is defined.
(This may seem like an odd thing to you, but you'll use the construct in
almost every Perl script you write.) Anyway, the following lines are
equivalent to each other:
while (defined($_ = <STDIN>)) { print; }
while (<STDIN>) { print; }
for (;<STDIN>;) { print; }
print while defined($_ = <STDIN>);
print while <STDIN>;
The filehandles STDIN, STDOUT and STDERR are predefined. (The filehandles
stdin, stdout and stderr will also work except in packages, where they
would be interpreted as local identifiers rather than global.) Additional
filehandles may be created with the open() function. See open for details
on this.
If a <FILEHANDLE> is used in a context that is looking for a list, a list
consisting of all the input lines is returned, one line per list element.
It's easy to make a LARGE data space this way, so use with care.
The null filehandle <> is special and can be used to emulate the behavior
of sed and awk. Input from <> comes either from standard input, or from
each file listed on the command line. Here's how it works: the first time
<> is evaluated, the @ARGV array is checked, and if it is null, $ARGV [0]
is set to ``-'', which when opened gives you standard input. The @ARGV
array is then processed as a list of filenames. The loop
while (<>) {
... # code for each line
}
is equivalent to the following Perl-like pseudo code:
unshift(@ARGV, '-') if $#ARGV < $[;
while ($ARGV = shift) {
open(ARGV, $ARGV);
while (<ARGV>) {
... # code for each line
}
}
except that it isn't so cumbersome to say, and will actually work. It
really does shift array @ARGV and put the current filename into variable
$ARGV . It also uses filehandle ARGV internally--<> is just a synonym for
<ARGV>, which is magical. (The pseudo code above doesn't work because it
treats <ARGV> as non-magical.)
You can modify @ARGV before the first <> as long as the array ends up
containing the list of filenames you really want. Line numbers ( $. )
continue as if the input were one big happy file. (But see example under
eof() for how to reset line numbers on each file.)
If you want to set @ARGV to your own list of files, go right ahead. If you
want to pass switches into your script, you can use one of the Getopts
modules or put a loop on the front like this:
while ($_ = $ARGV[0], /^-/) {
shift;
last if /^--$/;
if (/^-D(.*)/) { $debug = $1 }
if (/^-v/) { $verbose++ }
... # other switches
}
while (<>) {
... # code for each line
}
The <> symbol will return FALSE only once. If you call it again after this
it will assume you are processing another @ARGV list, and if you haven't
set @ARGV , will input from STDIN.
If the string inside the angle brackets is a reference to a scalar variable
(e.g. <$foo>), then that variable contains the name of the filehandle to
input from, or a reference to the same. For example:
$fh = \*STDIN;
$line = <$fh>;
If the string inside angle brackets is not a filehandle or a scalar
variable containing a filehandle name or reference, then it is interpreted
as a filename pattern to be globbed, and either a list of filenames or the
next filename in the list is returned, depending on context. One level of $
interpretation is done first, but you can't say <$foo> because that's an
indirect filehandle as explained in the previous paragraph. In older
version of Perl, programmers would insert curly brackets to force
interpretation as a filename glob: <${foo}>. These days, it's consdired
cleaner to call the internal function directly as glob($foo) , which is
probably the right way to have done it in the first place.) Example:
while (<*.c>) {
chmod 0644, $_;
}
is equivalent to
open(FOO, "echo *.c | tr -s ' \t\r\f' '\\012\\012\\012\\012'|");
while (<FOO>) {
chop;
chmod 0644, $_;
}
In fact, it's currently implemented that way. (Which means it will not work
on filenames with spaces in them unless you have csh(1) on your machine.)
Of course, the shortest way to do the above is:
chmod 0644, <*.c>;
Because globbing invokes a shell, it's often faster to call readdir()
yourself and just do your own grep() on the filenames. Furthermore, due to
its current implementation of using a shell, the glob() routine may get
"Arg list too long" errors (unless you've installed tcsh(1L) as /bin/csh).
A glob only evaluates its (embedded) argument when it is starting a new
list. All values must be read before it will start over. In a list context
this isn't important, because you automatically get them all anyway. In a
scalar context, however, the operator returns the next value each time it
is called, or a FALSE value if you've just run out. Again, FALSE is
returned only once. So if you're expecting a single value from a glob, it
is much better to say
($file) = <blurch*>;
than
$file = <blurch*>;
because the latter will alternate between returning a filename and
returning FALSE.
It you're trying to do variable interpolation, it's definitely better to
use the glob() function, because the older notation can cause people to
become confused with the indirect filehandle notatin.
@files = glob("$dir/*.[ch]");
@files = glob($files[$i]);
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Constant Folding
Like C, Perl does a certain amount of expression evaluation at compile
time, whenever it determines that all of the arguments to an operator are
static and have no side effects. In particular, string concatenation
happens at compile time between literals that don't do variable
substitution. Backslash interpretation also happens at compile time. You
can say
'Now is the time for all' . "\n" .
'good men to come to.'
and this all reduces to one string internally. Likewise, if you say
foreach $file (@filenames) {
if (-s $file > 5 + 100 * 2**16) { ... }
}
the compiler will pre-compute the number that expression represents so that
the interpreter won't have to.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Integer arithmetic
By default Perl assumes that it must do most of its arithmetic in floating
point. But by saying
use integer;
you may tell the compiler that it's okay to use integer operations from
here to the end of the enclosing BLOCK. An inner BLOCK may countermand this
by saying
no integer;
which lasts until the end of that BLOCK.
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