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标 题: perl(22)
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NAME
perlsub - Perl subroutines
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
SYNOPSIS
To declare subroutines:
sub NAME; # A "forward" declaration.
sub NAME(PROTO); # ditto, but with prototypes
sub NAME BLOCK # A declaration and a definition.
sub NAME(PROTO) BLOCK # ditto, but with prototypes
To define an anonymous subroutine at runtime:
$subref = sub BLOCK;
To import subroutines:
use PACKAGE qw(NAME1 NAME2 NAME3);
To call subroutines:
NAME(LIST); # & is optional with parens.
NAME LIST; # Parens optional if predeclared/imported.
&NAME; # Passes current @_ to subroutine.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
DESCRIPTION
Like many languages, Perl provides for user-defined subroutines. These may
be located anywhere in the main program, loaded in from other files via the
do , require , or use keywords, or even generated on the fly using eval or
anonymous subroutines (closures). You can even call a function indirectly
using a variable containing its name or a CODE reference.
The Perl model for function call and return values is simple: all functions
are passed as parameters one single flat list of scalars, and all functions
likewise return to their caller one single flat list of scalars. Any arrays
or hashes in these call and return lists will collapse, losing their
identities--but you may always use pass-by-reference instead to avoid this.
Both call and return lists may contain as many or as few scalar elements as
you'd like. (Often a function without an explicit return statement is
called a subroutine, but there's really no difference from the language's
perspective.)
Any arguments passed to the routine come in as the array @_. Thus if you
called a function with two arguments, those would be stored in $_ [0] and
$_ [1]. The array @_ is a local array, but its values are implicit
references (predating the perlref manpage ) to the actual scalar
parameters. The return value of the subroutine is the value of the last
expression evaluated. Alternatively, a return statement may be used to
specify the returned value and exit the subroutine. If you return one or
more arrays and/or hashes, these will be flattened together into one large
indistinguishable list.
Perl does not have named formal parameters, but in practice all you do is
assign to a my() list of these. Any variables you use in the function that
aren't declared private are global variables. For the gory details on
creating private variables, see the sections below on L<"Private Variables
via my() ``> and ''Temporary Values via local() ". To create protected
environments for a set of functions in a separate package (and probably a
separate file), see ``Packages''.
Example:
sub max {
my $max = shift(@_);
foreach $foo (@_) {
$max = $foo if $max < $foo;
}
return $max;
}
$bestday = max($mon,$tue,$wed,$thu,$fri);
Example:
# get a line, combining continuation lines
# that start with whitespace
sub get_line {
$thisline = $lookahead; # GLOBAL VARIABLES!!
LINE: while ($lookahead = <STDIN>) {
if ($lookahead =~ /^[ \t]/) {
$thisline .= $lookahead;
}
else {
last LINE;
}
}
$thisline;
}
$lookahead = <STDIN>; # get first line
while ($_ = get_line()) {
...
}
Use array assignment to a local list to name your formal arguments:
sub maybeset {
my($key, $value) = @_;
$Foo{$key} = $value unless $Foo{$key};
}
This also has the effect of turning call-by-reference into call-by-value,
since the assignment copies the values. Otherwise a function is free to do
in-place modifications of @_ and change its callers values.
upcase_in($v1, $v2); # this changes $v1 and $v2
sub upcase_in {
for (@_) { tr/a-z/A-Z/ }
}
You aren't allowed to modify constants in this way, of course. If an
argument were actually literal and you tried to change it, you'd take a
(presumably fatal) exception. For example, this won't work:
upcase_in("frederick");
It would be much safer if the upcase_in() function were written to return a
copy of its parameters instead of changing them in place:
($v3, $v4) = upcase($v1, $v2); # this doesn't
sub upcase {
my @parms = @_;
for (@parms) { tr/a-z/A-Z/ }
return @parms;
}
Notice how this (unprototyped) function doesn't care whether it was passed
real scalars or arrays. Perl will see everything as one big long flat @_
parameter list. This is one of the ways where Perl's simple
argument-passing style shines. The upcase() function would work perfectly
well without changing the upcase() definition even if we fed it things like
this:
@newlist = upcase(@list1, @list2);
@newlist = upcase( split /:/, $var );
Do not, however, be tempted to do this:
(@a, @b) = upcase(@list1, @list2);
Because like its flat incoming parameter list, the return list is also
flat. So all you have managed to do here is stored everything in @a and
made @b an empty list. See ``Pass by Reference'' for alternatives.
A subroutine may be called using the ``&'' prefix. The ``&'' is optional in
Perl 5, and so are the parens if the subroutine has been predeclared.
(Note, however, that the ``&'' is NOT optional when you're just naming the
subroutine, such as when it's used as an argument to defined() or undef() .
Nor is it optional when you want to do an indirect subroutine call with a
subroutine name or reference using the & $< EM>subref() or &{$subref}()
constructs. See the perlref manpage for more on that.)
Subroutines may be called recursively. If a subroutine is called using the
``&'' form, the argument list is optional, and if omitted, no @_ array is
set up for the subroutine: the @_ array at the time of the call is visible
to subroutine instead. This is an efficiency mechanism that new users may
wish to avoid.
&foo(1,2,3); # pass three arguments
foo(1,2,3); # the same
foo(); # pass a null list
&foo(); # the same
&foo; # foo() get current args, like foo(@_) !!
foo; # like foo() IFF sub foo pre-declared, else "foo"
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Private Variables via my()
Synopsis:
my $foo; # declare $foo lexically local
my (@wid, %get); # declare list of variables local
my $foo = "flurp"; # declare $foo lexical, and init it
my @oof = @bar; # declare @oof lexical, and init it
A ``my'' declares the listed variables to be confined (lexically) to the
enclosing block, subroutine, eval , or do/require/use 'd file. If more than
one value is listed, the list must be placed in parens. All listed elements
must be legal lvalues. Only alphanumeric identifiers may be lexically
scoped--magical builtins like $/ must currently be localized with ``local''
instead.
Unlike dynamic variables created by the ``local'' statement, lexical
variables declared with ``my'' are totally hidden from the outside world,
including any called subroutines (even if it's the same subroutine called
from itself or elsewhere--every call gets its own copy).
(An eval() , however, can see the lexical variables of the scope it is
being evaluated in so long as the names aren't hidden by declarations
within the eval() itself. See the perlref manpage .)
The parameter list to my() may be assigned to if desired, which allows you
to initialize your variables. (If no initializer is given for a particular
variable, it is created with the undefined value.) Commonly this is used to
name the parameters to a subroutine. Examples:
$arg = "fred"; # "global" variable
$n = cube_root(27);
print "$arg thinks the root is $n\n";
fred thinks the root is 3
sub cube_root {
my $arg = shift; # name doesn't matter
$arg **= 1/3;
return $arg;
}
The ``my'' is simply a modifier on something you might assign to. So when
you do assign to the variables in its argument list, the ``my'' doesn't
change whether those variables is viewed as a scalar or an array. So
my ($foo) = <STDIN>;
my @FOO = <STDIN>;
both supply a list context to the righthand side, while
my $foo = <STDIN>;
supplies a scalar context. But the following only declares one variable:
my $foo, $bar = 1;
That has the same effect as
my $foo;
$bar = 1;
The declared variable is not introduced (is not visible) until after the
current statement. Thus,
my $x = $x;
can be used to initialize the new $x with the value of the old $x, and the
expression
my $x = 123 and $x == 123
is false unless the old $x happened to have the value 123.
Some users may wish to encourage the use of lexically scoped variables. As
an aid to catching implicit references to package variables, if you say
use strict 'vars';
then any variable reference from there to the end of the enclosing block
must either refer to a lexical variable, or must be fully qualified with
the package name. A compilation error results otherwise. An inner block may
countermand this with ``no strict 'vars'''.
A my() has both a compile-time and a run-time effect. At compile time, the
compiler takes notice of it; the principle usefulness of this is to quiet
use strict 'vars' . The actual initialization doesn't happen until run
time, so gets executed every time through a loop.
Variables declared with ``my'' are not part of any package and are
therefore never fully qualified with the package name. In particular,
you're not allowed to try to make a package variable (or other global)
lexical:
my $pack::var; # ERROR! Illegal syntax
my $_; # also illegal (currently)
In fact, a dynamic variable (also known as package or global variables) are
still accessible using the fully qualified :: notation even while a lexical
of the same name is also visible:
package main;
local $x = 10;
my $x = 20;
print "$x and $::x\n";
That will print out 20 and 10.
You may declare ``my'' variables at the outer most scope of a file to
totally hide any such identifiers from the outside world. This is similar
to a C's static variables at the file level. To do this with a subroutine
requires the use of a closure (anonymous function). If a block (such as an
eval() , function, or package ) wants to create a private subroutine that
cannot be called from outside that block, it can declare a lexical variable
containing an anonymous sub reference:
my $secret_version = '1.001-beta';
my $secret_sub = sub { print $secret_version };
&$secret_sub();
As long as the reference is never returned by any function within the
module, no outside module can see the subroutine, since its name is not in
any package's symbol table. Remember that it's not REALLY called
$some_pack::secret_version or anything; it's just $secret_version,
unqualified and unqualifiable.
This does not work with object methods, however; all object methods have to
be in the symbol table of some package to be found.
Just because the lexical variable is lexically (also called statically)
scoped doesn't mean that within a function it works like a C static. It
normally works more like a C auto. But here's a mechanism for giving a
function private variables with both lexical scoping and a static lifetime.
If you do want to create something like C's static variables, just enclose
the whole function in an extra block, and put the static variable outside
the function but in the block.
{
my $secret_val = 0;
sub gimme_another {
return ++$secret_val;
}
}
# $secret_val now becomes unreachable by the outside
# world, but retains its value between calls to gimme_another
If this function is being sourced in from a separate file via require or
use , then this is probably just fine. If it's all in the main program,
you'll need to arrange for the my() to be executed early, either by putting
the whole block above your pain program, or more likely, merely placing a
BEGIN sub around it to make sure it gets executed before your program
starts to run:
sub BEGIN {
my $secret_val = 0;
sub gimme_another {
return ++$secret_val;
}
}
See the perlrun manpage about the BEGIN function.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Temporary Values via local()
NOTE: In general, you should be using ``my'' instead of ``local'', because
it's faster and safer. Execeptions to this include the global punctuation
variables, filehandles and formats, and direct manipulation of the Perl
symbol table itself. Format variables often use ``local'' though, as do
other variables whose current value must be visible to called subroutines.
Synopsis:
local $foo; # declare $foo dynamically local
local (@wid, %get); # declare list of variables local
local $foo = "flurp"; # declare $foo dynamic, and init it
local @oof = @bar; # declare @oof dynamic, and init it
local *FH; # localize $FH, @FH, %FH, &FH ...
local *merlyn = *randal; # now $merlyn is really $randal, plus
# @merlyn is really @randal, etc
local *merlyn = 'randal'; # SAME THING: promote 'randal' to *randal
local *merlyn = \$randal; # just alias $merlyn, not @merlyn etc
A local() modifies its listed variables to be local to the enclosing block,
(or subroutine, eval{} or do ) and Ilocal() just gives temporary values to
global (meaning package) variables. This is known as dynamic scoping.
Lexical scoping is done with ``my'', which works more like C's auto
declarations.
If more than one variable is given to local() , they must be placed in
parens. All listed elements must be legal lvalues. This operator works by
saving the current values of those variables in its argument list on a
hidden stack and restoring them upon exiting the block, subroutine or eval.
This means that called subroutines can also reference the local variable,
but not the global one. The argument list may be assigned to if desired,
which allows you to initialize your local variables. (If no initializer is
given for a particular variable, it is created with an undefined value.)
Commonly this is used to name the parameters to a subroutine. Examples:
for $i ( 0 .. 9 ) {
$digits{$i} = $i;
}
# assume this function uses global %digits hash
parse_num();
# now temporarily add to %digits hash
if ($base12) {
# (NOTE: not claiming this is efficient!)
local %digits = (%digits, 't' => 10, 'e' => 11);
parse_num(); # parse_num gets this new %digits!
}
# old %digits restored here
Because local() is a run-time command, and so gets executed every time
through a loop. In releases of Perl previous to 5.0, this used more stack
storage each time until the loop was exited. Perl now reclaims the space
each time through, but it's still more efficient to declare your variables
outside the loop.
A local is simply a modifier on an lvalue expression. When you assign to a
localized variable, the local doesn't change whether its list is viewed as
a scalar or an array. So
local($foo) = <STDIN>;
local @FOO = <STDIN>;
both supply a list context to the righthand side, while
local $foo = <STDIN>;
supplies a scalar context.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Passing Symbol Table Entries (typeglobs)
[Note: The mechanism described in this section was originally the only way
to simulate pass-by-reference in older versions of Perl. While it still
works fine in modern versions, the new reference mechanism is generally
easier to work with. See below.]
Sometimes you don't want to pass the value of an array to a subroutine but
rather the name of it, so that the subroutine can modify the global copy of
it rather than working with a local copy. In perl you can refer to all
objects of a particular name by prefixing the name with a star: *foo. This
is often known as a ``type glob'', since the star on the front can be
thought of as a wildcard match for all the funny prefix characters on
variables and subroutines and such.
When evaluated, the type glob produces a scalar value that represents all
the objects of that name, including any filehandle, format or subroutine.
When assigned to, it causes the name mentioned to refer to whatever ``*''
value was assigned to it. Example:
sub doubleary {
local(*someary) = @_;
foreach $elem (@someary) {
$elem *= 2;
}
}
doubleary(*foo);
doubleary(*bar);
Note that scalars are already passed by reference, so you can modify scalar
arguments without using this mechanism by referring explicitly to $_ [0]
etc. You can modify all the elements of an array by passing all the
elements as scalars, but you have to use the * mechanism (or the equivalent
reference mechanism) to push, pop or change the size of an array. It will
certainly be faster to pass the typeglob (or reference).
Even if you don't want to modify an array, this mechanism is useful for
passing multiple arrays in a single LIST, since normally the LIST mechanism
will merge all the array values so that you can't extract out the
individual arrays. For more on typeglobs, see ``Typeglobs''.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pass by Reference
If you want to pass more than one array or hash into a function--or return
them from it--and have them maintain their integrity, then you're going to
have to use an explicit pass-by-reference. Before you do that, you need to
understand references; see the perlref manpage .
Here are a few simple examples. First, let's pass in several arrays to a
function and have it pop all of then, return a new list of all their former
last elements:
@tailings = popmany ( \@a, \@b, \@c, \@d );
sub popmany {
my $aref;
my @retlist = ();
foreach $aref ( @_ ) {
push @retlist, pop @$aref;
}
return @retlist;
}
Here's how you might write a function that returns a list of keys occurring
in all the hashes passed to it:
@common = inter( \%foo, \%bar, \%joe );
sub inter {
my ($k, $href, %seen); # locals
foreach $href (@_) {
while ( $k = each %$href ) {
$seen{$k}++;
}
}
return grep { $seen{$_} == @_ } keys %seen;
}
So far, we're just using the normal list return mechanism. What happens if
you want to pass or return a hash? Well, if you're only using one of them,
or you don't mind them concatenating, then the normal calling convention is
ok, although a little expensive.
Where people get into trouble is here:
(@a, @b) = func(@c, @d);
or
(%a, %b) = func(%c, %d);
That syntax simply won't work. It just sets @a or %a and clears the @b or
%b. Plus the function didn't get passed into two separate arrays or hashes:
it got one long list in @_, as always.
If you can arrange for everyone to deal with this through references, it's
cleaner code, although not so nice to look at. Here's a function that takes
two array references as arguments, returning the two array elements in
order of how many elements they have in them:
($aref, $bref) = func(\@c, \@d);
print "@$aref has more than @$bref\n";
sub func {
my ($cref, $dref) = @_;
if (@$cref > @$dref) {
return ($cref, $dref);
} else {
return ($cref, $cref);
}
}
It turns out that you can actually do this also:
(*a, *b) = func(\@c, \@d);
print "@a has more than @b\n";
sub func {
local (*c, *d) = @_;
if (@c > @d) {
return (\@c, \@d);
} else {
return (\@d, \@c);
}
}
Here we're using the typeglobs to do symbol table aliasing. It's a tad
subtle, though, and also won't work if you're using my() variables, since
only globals (well, and local() s) are in the symbol table.
If you're passing around filehandles, you could usually just use the bare
typeglob, like *STDOUT, but typeglobs references would be better because
they'll still work properly under use strict 'refs' . For example:
splutter(\*STDOUT);
sub splutter {
my $fh = shift;
print $fh "her um well a hmmm\n";
}
$rec = get_rec(\*STDIN);
sub get_rec {
my $fh = shift;
return scalar <$fh>;
}
If you're planning on generating new filehandles, you could do this:
sub openit {
my $name = shift;
local *FH;
return open (FH, $path) ? \*FH : undef;
}
Although that will actually produce a small memory leak. See the bottom of
open for a somewhat cleaner way using the FileHandle functions supplied
with the POSIX package.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prototypes
As of the 5.002 release of perl, if you declare
sub mypush (\@@)
then mypush() takes arguments exactly like push() does. (This only works
for function calls that are visible at compile time, not indirect function
calls through a &$func reference nor for method calls as described in the
perlobj manpage .)
Here are the prototypes for some other functions that parse almost exactly
like the corresponding builtins.
Declared as Called as
sub mylink ($$) mylink $old, $new
sub myvec ($$$) myvec $var, $offset, 1
sub myindex ($$;$) myindex &getstring, "substr"
sub mysyswrite ($$$;$) mysyswrite $buf, 0, length($buf) - $off, $off
sub myreverse (@) myreverse $a,$b,$c
sub myjoin ($@) myjoin ":",$a,$b,$c
sub mypop (\@) mypop @array
sub mysplice (\@$$@) mysplice @array,@array,0,@pushme
sub mykeys (\%) mykeys %{$hashref}
sub myopen (*;$) myopen HANDLE, $name
sub mypipe (**) mypipe READHANDLE, WRITEHANDLE
sub mygrep (&@) mygrep { /foo/ } $a,$b,$c
sub myrand ($) myrand 42
sub mytime () mytime
Any backslashed prototype character must be passed something starting with
that character. Any unbackslashed @ or % eats all the rest of the
arguments, and forces list context. An argument represented by $ forces
scalar context. An & requires an anonymous subroutine, and * does whatever
it has to do to turn the argument into a reference to a symbol table entry.
A semicolon separates mandatory arguments from optional arguments.
Note that the last three are syntactically distinguished by the lexer.
mygrep() is parsed as a true list operator, myrand() is parsed as a true
unary operator with unary precedence the same as rand() , and mytime() is
truly argumentless, just like time() . That is, if you say
mytime +2;
you'll get mytime() + 2, not mytime(2), which is how it would be parsed
without the prototype.
The interesting thing about & is that you can generate new syntax with it:
sub try (&$) {
my($try,$catch) = @_;
eval { &$try };
if ($@) {
local $_ = $@;
&$catch;
}
}
sub catch (&) { @_ }
try {
die "phooey";
} catch {
/phooey/ and print "unphooey\n";
};
That prints ``unphooey''. (Yes, there are still unresolved issues having to
do with the visibility of @_. I'm ignoring that question for the moment.
(But note that if we make @_ lexically scoped, those anonymous subroutines
can act like closures... (Gee, is this sounding a little Lispish?
(Nevermind.))))
And here's a reimplementation of grep:
sub mygrep (&@) {
my $code = shift;
my @result;
foreach $_ (@_) {
push(@result, $_) if &$ref;
}
@result;
}
Some folks would prefer full alphanumeric prototypes. Alphanumerics have
been intentionally left out of prototypes for the express purpose of
someday in the future adding named, formal parameters. The current
mechanism's main goal is to let module writers provide better diagnostics
for module users. Larry feels the notation quite understandable to Perl
programmers, and that it will not intrude greatly upon the meat of the
module, nor make it harder to read. The line noise is visually encapsulated
into a small pill that's easy to swallow.
It's probably best to prototype new functions, not retrofit prototyping
into older ones. That's because you must be especially careful about silent
impositions of differing list versus scalar contexts. For example, if you
decide that a function should take just one parameter, like this:
sub func ($) {
my $n = shift;
print "you gave me $n\n";
}
and someone has been calling it with an array or expression returning a
list:
func(@foo);
func( split /:/ );
Then you've just supplied an automatic scalar() in front of their argument,
which can be more than a bit surprising. The old @foo which used to hold
one thing doesn't get passed in. Instead, the func() now gets passed in 1,
that is, the number of elments in @foo. And the split() gets called in a
scalar context and starts scribbling on your @_ parameter list.
This is all very powerful, of course, and should only be used in moderation
to make the world a better place.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Overriding Builtin Functions
Many builtin functions may be overridden, though this should only be tried
occasionally and for good reason. Typically this might be done by a package
attempting to emulate missing builtin functionality on a non-Unix system.
Overriding may only be done by importing the name from a module--ordinary
predeclaration isn't good enough. However, the subs pragma (compiler
directive) lets you, in effect, predeclare subs via the import syntax, and
these names may then override the builtin ones:
use subs 'chdir', 'chroot', 'chmod', 'chown';
chdir $somewhere;
sub chdir { ... }
Library modules should not in general export builtin names like ``open'' or
``chdir'' as part of their default @EXPORT list, since these may sneak into
someone else's namespace and change the semantics unexpectedly. Instead, if
the module adds the name to the @EXPORT_OK list, then it's possible for a
user to import the name explicitly, but not implicitly. That is, they could
say
use Module 'open';
and it would import the open override, but if they said
use Module;
they would get the default imports without the overrides.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Autoloading
If you call a subroutine that is undefined, you would ordinarily get an
immediate fatal error complaining that the subroutine doesn't exist.
(Likewise for subroutines being used as methods, when the method doesn't
exist in any of the base classes of the class package.) If, however, there
is an AUTOLOAD subroutine defined in the package or packages that were
searched for the original subroutine, then that AUTOLOAD subroutine is
called with the arguments that would have been passed to the original
subroutine. The fully qualified name of the original subroutine magically
appears in the $AUTOLOAD variable in the same package as the AUTOLOAD
routine. The name is not passed as an ordinary argument because, er, well,
just because, that's why...
Most AUTOLOAD routines will load in a definition for the subroutine in
question using eval, and then execute that subroutine using a special form
of ``goto'' that erases the stack frame of the AUTOLOAD routine without a
trace. (See the standard AutoLoader module, for example.) But an AUTOLOAD
routine can also just emulate the routine and never define it. For example,
let's pretend that a function that wasn't defined should just call system()
with those arguments. All you'd do is this:
sub AUTOLOAD {
my $program = $AUTOLOAD;
$program =~ s/.*:://;
system($program, @_);
}
date();
who('am', i');
ls('-l');
In fact, if you preclare the functions you want to call that way, you don't
even need the parentheses:
use subs qw(date who ls);
date;
who "am", "i";
ls -l;
A more complete example of this is the standard Shell module, which can
treat undefined subroutine calls as calls to Unix programs.
Mechanisms are available for modules writers to help split the modules up
into autoloadable files. See the standard AutoLoader module described in
Autoloader, the standard SelfLoader modules in SelfLoader, and the document
on adding C functions to perl code in the perlxs manpage .
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
SEE ALSO
See the perlref manpage for more on references. See the perlxs manpage if
you'd like to learn about calling C subroutines from perl. See the perlmod
manpage to learn about bundling up your functions in separate files.
--------------6E14136B4FEB--
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